Humanities Question

  

Description

1. Reference or bibliographic entry of your selected article in APA (see example in the first assignment guidelines):
2. What are the aims and/or research questions of the study? 
3. What concepts or ideas did the authors want to study? How were they defined in the study? Read through the literature background or the introduction part.  
4. Describe the participants of the study. Since you are supposed to choose an article of a cross-cultural study on families, the participants for this study should have different cultural backgrounds. Make sure to be specific. What are these cultural backgrounds? What are the demographics of the participants? 
5. What is the authors’ methodology? How did the authors collect their data? What are the measurements or research tools that they used?
6. What kind of analytical procedures did the authors use to answer the research questions or achieve the aims of the study? That is, once the data was collected, how did the author analyze it. 
7. What are their general findings and conclusions?
8. After the findings and conclusions, what recommendations were made by the researchers?
9. Reflection: What did you learn from doing this assignment or from reading a comparative research paper?Comparative Study of Post-Marriage Nationality Of Women in Legal Systems of Different Countries
International Journal of Multicultural
and Multireligious Understanding
http://ijmmu.com
editor@ijmmu.com
ISSN 2364-5369
Volume 6, Issue 5
October, 2019
Pages: 611-626
Acculturation of Japanese and American Intermarried Couples: Case Study of
Their Marital Experiences and Parenting
Kanae Kura 1; Su-Jeong Wee; Elsa Weber; David Nalbone 2
1
2
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, United State
Department of Behavioral Science, Purdue University Northwest, United State
http://dx.doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v6i5.1133
Abstract
This qualitative case study sought to gain in-depth understanding of Japanese and American family
unions and the intermarried couples’ acculturation processes. It explored how intermarried couples view
cultural differences, and how they negotiate and compromise in conflicts caused by such differences.
Qualitative interviews were conducted with four couples comprising Japanese wives and their EuropeanAmerican husbands residing in the Midwestern United States. Interview questions included couples’
communication style, marital expectations, and parenting, from their perspective. The study found factors
such as communication style, gender role expectations, marital expectations, and parenting style,
contributed to conflicts in co-parenting and communication. Further investigation including sociopolitical
aspects and cultural adaptation are recommended for future research.
Keywords: Acculturation; Intermarriage; Interracial; Communication; Parenting
Introduction
Globalization not only affects world economics and politics, but also changes the face of family
unions. In the United States, the number of interracial marriages has expanded from 0.7% of total
marriages in 1970 to 4.9% in 2000 (Oikawa & Yoshida, 2007). Particularly in Japanese international
marriage, Americans have comprised a large percentage of the spouses (Want, 2013) in both Japan and
the United States. Despite the major increase in interracial marriage, there are few empirical studies,
especially concerning Japanese and American marriage unions. Most studies about intermarriage have
focused on interracial African American and European American unions rather than transnational and
cross-cultural unions (e.g., Hud-Aleem, Countryman, & Gillig, 2008; Walker & Prasad, 2006; Wardle,
1999; Wardle, & Cruz-Janzen, 2004). Understanding the experiences of the ever increasing population of
Japanese and American unions is critical to filling the gaps in the literature on intermarriage.
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Moreover, literature is particularly lacking in qualitative investigation of this population.
Previous studies on intermarriage often concern various aspects of sociocultural differences, such as
social support (Fu & Wolfinger, 2011), family supports (Fu & Wolfinger, 2011; Huijnk, 2012) or societal
tolerance to racial integration (Voigtlander & Voth, 2013), communication styles (Kline et al., 2012;
Rohrlich, 1988), and expectations for marriage (Kline et al., 2012; Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2014) through
quantitative methods. These differences may lead to the couples having to work on acculturation to each
other.
To bolster previous studies, this examines Japanese and American marriage unions (consisting of
Japanese wives and European-American husbands) and their mixed-heritage children, living in
Midwestern United States. It focuses on how the couples’ acculturation to each other affects how they
deal with differences, disagreements, tensions, and conflicts in their married life, and how these
differences, in their perspective, contribute to their disagreements and conflicts. It addresses two main
questions: 1) What are the intermarried couples’ marriage experiences? 2) What are their experiences in
communication, marital expectations, and parenting styles? By conducting qualitative interviews with the
couples, it offers an in-depth understanding of the intermarried couples’ marital experiences, challenges,
and acculturation processes.
Terminology
This study involves intermarried couples comprised of a Japanese wife and a U.S.-born European
American husband. Different terms for “intermarriage” are introduced in this paper according to the
different concepts for different languages and nationalities. The term “intermarriage” in the United States
often refers to interracial marriage (Collet, 2015; Fu & Wolfinger, 2011; Rodriguez-Garcia, 2015;
Sporlein, Schlueter, & Tubergen, 2014; Wu, Shimmele, & Hou, 2015) amongst European American,
African American, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, and other groups. In contrast to intermarriage in
the U.S. focusing on race, Japanese intermarriage is focused on nationality. The term “mixed-heritage
children”, used throughout the article, is chosen over “interracial” or “interethnic” children to convey
cultural heritage such as language, cultural norms, and beliefs derived from parents of different
backgrounds.
Acculturation
Acculturation theory has been primarily used in studies of intercultural adjustment (Greenland &
Brown, 2005), defined as the process of adaptation to a new culture in order to survive and function in a
new environment, and is often used to examine assimilation and integration of immigrants into new
environments (Chae & Foley, 2010). Cultural adjustment of spouses is often challenging for intermarried
couples (Negy & Snyder, 2000; Nitta, 1988). In their study of acculturation of Mexican American and
non-Hispanic White American interethnic couples, Negy and Snyder (2000) found that the level of
acculturation for interethnic couples was significantly related to marital distress, such as financial
management and child rearing roles. Kim, Edwards, Sweeney, and Wetchler (2012) found acculturation
and differentiation factored into increased relationship satisfaction, and stressed integration of cultural
values and beliefs are important to the acculturation of intermarried couples.
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Communication and Expectations for Marriage
Japan being collectivist and the U.S. individualist (Kline et al., 2012), these two cultures may
have different familial approaches in communication style, behavior, values, and beliefs. Japanese
spouses view direct communication as a cause of conflict, and prefer avoiding direct confrontation to
maintain harmony (Taniguchi & Kaufman, 2014). Despite very few empirical studies on intercultural
couples’ communication (Hiew, Halford, Vijver, & Liu, 2016), Li (2006) found convergence in
intercultural communication amongst those not in an intimate relationship.
Referencing marriage between two cultures, Kline et al. (2012) found cultural tendencies in mate
preferences and marital expectations, and Americans valued romantic love more than collectivists
societies such as Indians, Koreans, and Chinese (Kline et al., 2012). Taniguchi and Kaufman (2014)
argued Americans emphasized personal happiness, whereas Japanese were more pragmatic, with younger
Japanese couples often looking for equal partnership and child rearing responsibility (Taniguchi &
Kaufman, 2014).
Parenting Styles
Parents learn to negotiate when they have different cultural, traditional, historical, and religious
values (Edwards, Caballero, & Puthussery, 2010). In Western societies, authoritative parenting is
considered the best approach in encouraging a child’s self-generated willingness and maturity, because it
applies firm control with negotiation as family values (Rudy & Grusec, 2001). Whereas authoritarianism,
characterized by forcible authority that demands absolute obedience and respect to, is not considered the
best parenting style (Rudy & Grusec, 2001).
Previous studies have shown that mothers from collectivist cultures tend toward authoritarian
parenting; however, the expected negative outcomes of an authoritarian style have not been observed in
children raised that way (Rudy & Grusec, 2001). Scholars suggest that the parenting style represented in
the East Asian Parenting Model (Chao, 1994; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Wu, 1985) may involve
parental support in other ways, differing from the traditional conceptualization of authoritarian parenting
(e.g., Baumrind, 1971; Chao, 1996). It has been believed that authoritative parenting works better in
individualist societies, where expressing your own wishes and needs is expected, whereas, East Asian
parents’ authoritarian parenting may involve transmitting values while setting solid rules based on family
rather than restrictive control (Cho, 1996). In East Asian countries, family honor dictates child behavior
through expectations set by their parents and ancestors (Otto, 2016).
Method
Qualitative case study methodology enabled us to “to explore and examine various phenomena of
specific targets, such as individuals, groups, and their relationships” (Baxter & Jack, 2008, p. 544) in the
communication, marital and acculturating experiences of the intermarried Japanese and American
couples, bounded by limitations of location (in the Midwestern U.S.) and frequency of interviews (3
interviews per couple over 3 months).
Sample Recruitment
Participants were chosen by following criteria: Couples consisting of Japanese wives and U.S.born American husbands, where the wives were raised through adolescence in Japan and the husbands
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were of European American descent, defining two specific extremes in cultural difference. The couple
must have resided in the United States for at least one year, and been married for at least five years giving
them sufficient exposure to their partners. The couple must have raised, or currently raising children
together because child rearing was an important factor when observing the acculturation of intermarried
couples (Negy & Snyder, 2000). Eight couples were introduced as possible participants by the informant,
who is an acquaintance of the researcher. Two husbands refused, and loss of contact with two couples left
four couples participating in the study (see Table 1 for a summary of the participants’ characteristics).
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Sample
Participants
Couple A
Couple B
Couple C
Couple D
Husband A
Wife A
Husband B
Wife B
Husband C
Wife C
Husband D
Wife D
Age
42
44
40
39
36
49
47
46
Years of Marriage
Age of Child(ren)
16
11 & 8 years old
11
12 & 8 years old
10
8 years old
10
10 years old
Data Collection
Qualitative interviews collected detailed information about how the couples acculturate to each
other’s marital expectations, communication style, and parenting style. The first interview was conducted
with the couple for marital background, and the second with each spouse individually, to explore their
thoughts and experiences independent of their spouse’s presence. The last interview was to confirm the
information from the second interview and ask further questions if needed. The interviews were video
recorded to include behavioral observations, and participants were given pseudonyms for confidentiality.
The interviews were semi-structured, with focused research questions, but giving interviewees space for
variety in their answers.
The first interview set a relaxed environment while collecting basic background information
(marriage period, number and age of children) through a combination of open-ended and close-ended
questions. The first interview, except for the Duncan’s, was conducted in English. Mr. and Mrs. Duncan
both expressed concern about the wife’s ability to speak English during explanation of the interview
procedure. Mr. Duncan was able to conduct the interview in Japanese, with all interview questions being
asked in Japanese, while each spouse responded in their native language. When Mr. Duncan had difficulty
understanding, the interviewer used both English and Japanese to ensure the couple understood the
questions, and equally participated in the interview.
Core questions during the second and third interviews were open-ended, centering on the couples’
experiences in communication, marital expectations, parenting, and any changes made during the course
of their marriage (see Table 2 for selected questions during the second interview).
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Table 2. Selected Second Interview Questions
1
Do you remember what you expected in marriage when you were younger and single?
Has it changed since you got married?
2
How would you describe your communication style?
3
How about your spouse’s?
4
How do you feel about your communication style before your marriage and after
marriage, any changes?
5
How about your spouse’s? Any changes?
6
Any changes in family customs before marriage and after marriage? Any traditional
events or customs added or removed, and why?
7
Do you have any conflicts or challenges in marriage?
8
How do you solve/negotiate conflicts if you have any?
9
Do you have any conflicts or challenges in child rearing (if it was not suggested in marital
challenges)? 9-a) Who disciplines the child more? b) Who listens to the child’s needs and
desires more?
10
How do you solve such child rearing issues? How do you make decisions for your
children? At what point do your spouse and you allow your children to get a sick day
from school, fever, and their behaviors? How do you come up with such decisions? How
about applications of medications and doctor visits?
11
Do you feel your spouse’s culture affected you in any way? If so how?
12
Considering all we have talked about today, how do you think the experiences you
described and these changes you made, negotiations, compromise with each other affect
your children?
The second interview transcripts and notes dictated the questions for the third interview.
During the second and third interviews, English was used with all husbands, and Japanese was
used with all wives, in order for them to express their thoughts more comfortably.
Data Analysis
Using content analysis, data analysis was driven by participants’ experiences, and codes were
developed based on interview transcripts, with only coding for communication styles, marital
expectations, and parenting prepared prior to the interviews. Once the transcripts were completed, specific
words and phrases that represented adaptation, acculturation, and negotiation were marked to code the
data. The key words and phrases were coded for each participant, as well as for each couple, then
compared against each individual and couple. The transcripts went through member check (Stake, 1995)
to increase the data validity, and each participant checked own transcript to ensure an accurate account.
Interviews conducted in Japanese were transcribed first in Japanese and then translated into English, and
the Japanese wives reviewed the English transcripts to ensure nothing had not been lost in translation.
Emerging codes were added and revised during these processes, such as social and political issues and
struggles and challenges in marriage.
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Findings
Communication Patterns and Styles in Intermarried Couples
Most participants, regardless of cultural background, felt direct communication helped avoid
language associated misunderstandings and conflicts. Couples also noted convergence in communication,
with both husband and wife influencing the other’s communication style, with some participants viewed
the different language backgrounds as an advantage, not an obstacle.
Of the couples, only the Adams’ expressed satisfaction with their communication, who waited
until their children had gone to sleep to discuss distressing matters. They also used “timeouts” to calm
down and organize their thoughts, returning later to talk, apologize, negotiate, and find a middle ground.
In addition to frequent communication, Mr. Adams suggests that they have built confidence in each other
over the course of marriage, allowing them to be direct while also lessening conflicts.
The Duncan’s were the only one whose principal language at home was Japanese, and they felt
their communication was fairly good. They scheduled a “business meeting” when they needed to talk,
which satisfied their needs as a successful communication method. According to Mr. Duncan, instead of
arguing in the moment, scheduling a meeting gave them time to calm down and think beforehand. Mr.
Duncan initially found the more indirect communication style of Japan difficult, but now prefers it to the
more direct and self-centered American style of communication, while Mrs. Duncan has adapted to more
freely expressing her emotions. This type of convergence (Li, 2006) was noted with both the Cooper’s
and the Duncan’s, with both husbands feeling their wives had adopted a communication style more
expressive of her emotions.
The Brown’s spoke both Japanese and English at home, and felt discomfort in each other’s
approach to communication. Mr. Brown suspected his direct and assertive style of communication
frightened his wife, evidenced in their non-verbal communication during the first interview. Mrs. Brown
shrunk and maintained distance from her husband, while he stated his opinions strongly to assert control
over the argument. The resulting discomfort and power imbalance, and lack of acculturation in
communication style, led to Mrs. Brown to withdraw from conversation. When asked to describe the
couple’s communication, Mr. Brown summarized it as “lacking.”
None of the husbands expressed concerns about language barriers, while the wives found it to be
a hurdle they had to overcome. Mrs. Adams found it to be beneficial for both her and her husband’s
acculturating process, and stated “He knew the language issue comes with me when we got married, so I
expected him to understand it.”, rather than expecting her to improve her English. She explained that her
husband constructed a means of communication that adapted to her English. Mrs. Duncan also felt the
need to overcome language barriers contributed to lessening arguments in favor of building lines of
communication.
Expectations for Marriage
Cultural Norms of Gender and Marriage
Three Japanese wives’ prior disinterest in marriage was influenced by the models witnessed in
older generations. Mrs. Adams suggested that Japanese traditional values still prevailed, and that women
of her generation were expected to get married to be happy. Seeing her mother bound by those traditional
values had a profound effect on her view of marriage.
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All four wives expectations were influenced by their parent’s marriages. Mrs. Adams’ mother
struggled with staying at home rather than having her own career, leaving her desirous of a life outside
the home. Mrs. Brown imagined a dual income household, because both of her parents had worked. Mrs.
Cooper’s parents never had time as a couple because they always focused on their work and children, so,
she also focused on her daughter and work. Mrs. Duncan expressed frustration over her parents taking
each other for granted, which eventually led to contempt for each other, leading her to make an effort to
always show gratitude to her husband.
In regards to husbands’ expectation for marriage, only Mr. Brown expressed strong expectations
for marriage. Mr. Cooper was the only husband that expressed parental influence played a role in his
marital expectations. He expected not to divorce, and his reserved, harmonious communication style was
the obverse of what he witnessed with his parents.
Since Japanese cultural concepts are often constructed by native Shinto, Confucian, and
Buddhism beliefs, marital roles has have been traditionally separated by gender, allowing wives to focus
on child rearing (Kline et al., 2012). Mrs. Cooper expressed her determination to lead a child-centered life
style, as her parents did. Mrs. Adams expected gender role separation, but when her first child was born,
her husband expected that mother and father would have equal roles in raising children. This contradicted
her gender role expectations of separate roles, and she explained how her husband tried to play an equal
part. Her husband took time to acculturate to her values, as she stated, “He had to realize that there were
many things that he couldn’t do. Now he realizes that there are different roles.” Mr. Brown, on the other
hand, emphasized his preference not to follow Japanese gender role expectations, wanting to take a
disciplinary role and actively participate in child rearing activities, while expecting his wife to take the
motherly role, spending more mother-daughter time with their daughter.
Differences in Social Issues and Values
All couples felt cultural aspects such as food and holidays posed unique problems that sameculture couples might not have. This section explains couples’ difficulties and struggles caused by
different social concepts and values, which are at the core of their acculturation experience.
Racism and Self-Concept in the U.S.
Racism, religious oppression, political issues, legal matters, and social hierarchy in the U.S. were
repeated themes during the interviews for all four Japanese wives. Wife A reported:
“I thought I knew the U.S. pretty well from traveling here, but I had no clue about real
Americans…I struggled with the differences in system but major struggle was family
events. Well, Americans believe that they are the greatest, and their culture is the
greatest. And as for me, they think ‘coming from Asia, you are lucky to be married here
and have a good life.’ Well the U.S. has clear social hierarchy, compared to Japan, and
their socioeconomic gap of rich and poor is enormous. And we, at first, had more
opportunities to hang out with middle class and lower middle class people. Such people
have never owned a passport, never been in a foreign country, and never even been
interested in foreign countries. That’s the world they grow up in. And that’s ok. But
having to hang out with such people was such a stress.”
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Her husband’s family view of her as a “poor Asian” was unacceptable at the beginning of
marriage, though she eventually understood their cultural background and found forgiveness. Mr.
Cooper’s experiences in Japan supported Mrs. Adams’s view, Mr. Cooper recounted “in America, it’s,
especially around here, you’re brought up that this is the best place in the whole world, that you want to
be, that everybody wants to come to America, and life isn’t good anywhere but America, and then you go
to different countries and you’re just like (making exploding noise holding head) you know” continuing
with, “I can’t believe I’ve been, you know, indoctrinated my whole life.” He felt the low rate of passports
issued per-capita is in the U.S., and that are “too busy thinking just about themselves” left them ignorant
of the world. He was happy his daughter was growing up in a bicultural environment, making her much
more globally aware.
Mrs. Cooper, in tears, expressed concerns about religious oppression, and desired more varied
influence and choices for her. Her husband supported this during his solo interview, citing a religious
oppression in his community: “there was a time I got super pissed off at the nursery school because one of
the nursery school teachers had told her, her grandparents were going to go to hell because they weren’t
Christians.” Mr. Cooper pointed out the kindness Japanese people show each other, and that “there’s only
one percent Christian population” in Japan.
Self-concept in the U.S., in contrast to Japanese valuing humbleness, confused Japanese wives,
especially when having to convey them in English. Mr. Brown rated his wife’s communication as “not
confident”, though she teaches at a prestigious local university. Harmony within one’s community, rather
than personal display of opinion, is the precept of confidence in Japan. This differing concept of
“confidence” may be a key factor, as both Mrs. Brown and Mrs. Duncan felt it greatly influenced their
marital communication.
Standard of Living
Mr. Cooper believed medical costs and lack of public transportation marked a great difference in
standard of living between the middle class of Japan versus the United states, stating he lived more
comfortably at a lower wage in Japan because basic human needs were provided by the government.
Mrs. Cooper felt the American social hierarchical system, and great disparity between upper and
lower class, left her struggling with financial insecurity. The gap between upper class and working class is
not as prominent in Japan, and she felt being part of a much larger middle class offered a sense of
security. Combined with high medical costs in the absence of universal health care, and a political climate
that has become increasingly hostile toward immigration, she is often concerned that an emergency could
cause her family financial ruin.
Standards of Safety
Safety was a deep concern for the wives, and often caused discussion of moving back to Japan.
All participants viewed Japan as vastly safer than the United States. Mr. Cooper, having lived in the town
with the highest crime rate in Japan, felt it was much safer than the rural town in Northwest Indiana, a
supposedly low crime rate area, where he grew up. Mrs. Brown expressed that she did not want to live in
the U.S., due to the America’s notoriously high rates of violent crimes.
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Parenting
Authoritative vs Authoritarian
All couples agreed that the husbands tended toward authoritarian parenting, while the wives took
an authoritative approach. Mr. Adams and Mrs. Adams agreed that Mr. Adams often yelled, saying things
he should not have, and later regretted, while Mrs. Adams took time to explain things to their children.
Mr. Brown used corporal punishment, which contrasted with Mrs. Brown’s parenting style. Mr. Cooper
yelled at their daughter, and would revoke privileges, only to not follow through, while Mrs. Cooper
wanted to set more stable rules for their daughter. Mrs. Cooper said their daughter played “good girl” in
front of her father, and did not express what she really thought. Mrs. Duncan felt her husband’s parenting
was so strict that it was eroding their daughter’s confidence.
Differences of Cultural Customs and Standards in Parenting
Mrs. Brown gave many examples of differing culturally based parenting styles. Co-sleeping of
parents with newborns or infants to develop familial bonds is common in Japan, while Americans prefer
separate bedrooms to establish a sense of independence. Mrs. Brown felt she missed a bonding
opportunity with her first born, and was inconvenienced by sleeping separately, but complied with her
husband’s wishes. She was also shocked by the use of Sprite to ease a sore, and said “It’s out of question
for Japanese common sense.” Bathing was also a cultural difference, as common sense in Japan was
“washing off the dirt we bring back home from outside, and keep our bed clean”. Mr. Brown preferred
showering in the morning, and would leave the children unbathed for days.
Health Standards
Excessive sugar, additives, and artificial colors present in the American diet were a common
concern among the wives, as they wanted to establish healthy eating habits for their children. Mrs.
Duncan specifically mentioned strong medication, which her husband and mother-in-law advocated, and
she was culturally opposed to. The couple compromised by using homeopathic medicines and limiting
soda to once a week when dining out.
Discussion
This study explored acculturation experiences of intermarried couples through their
communication, marital expectations, and parenting styles. The findings showed that the Japanese wives
favored a direct communication style. Except for Mr. Brown, the husbands viewed the shift toward a
more direct style with their wives as progress, or building of confidence, in their relationship, rather than
understanding it as something they brought into their marriage. The husbands’ previous experiences of
having lived in Japan might influence their appreciation of being “group-centered” as opposed to
“asserting personal opinions” via a rather indirect communication style. Indirect communication is
designed to avoid confrontation and conflicts within the group, due to collectivists’ tendencies to favor
interdependence and determining self in the group context (Kitayama, & Markus, 1994). As the wives
mentioned, within intercultural communication, they would prefer a direct communication style to convey
messages more clearly and avoid misunderstanding. Alternatively, these participating couples found a
convergence of style, in line with literature on intercultural communication (Li, 2006). “Good”
communication seems to be a principal indicator of a “successful” relationship with the participants of the
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study (Fretcher, 2002). Adams, who were satisfied with their communication, also showed satisfaction in
marriage, as opposed to the Browns, who were dissatisfied with both. Goldman’s (1992) findings of the
argumentative nature in the U.S. versus the non-argumentative nature of Japan’s communication style
supports the findings of this study. The husbands felt their wives tended to “build things up,” avoiding
confrontation until they erupted. Several husbands did feel their wives had “taken their style,” indicating a
convergence, and now speak up more often. Such incongruences in the wives’ communication can be
explained by Park et al. (2012) despite cultural preferences in direct or indirect communication style,
overgeneralization is problematic due to the variations of individual differences within culture.
Traditional values of marital expectations in collectivist-individualist theory (Kline et al., 2012)
were clearly seen in the Cooper’s. Mr. Cooper expressed need for his wife’s attention and romantic love,
whereas, Mrs. Cooper expressed her determination to focus her attention on their daughter. Traditional
gender role expectations, husband as breadwinner and wife as home maker, were only seen in a half of the
couples. Some husbands expressed understood and accepted their wives pursuing a career, while others
preferred more traditional gender. Other than Mrs. Adams, the wives adopted a traditional gender role,
following the example of their parents.
This study contradicts previous empirical studies (i.e., Kemmelmeier et al., 2003; Rudy &
Grusec, 2001, 2006), that found collectivists practice authoritarian parenting, in order to implement
obedience to authorities and discipline, while individualists practice an authoritative style in order to
facilitate a child’s self-generated willingness and maturity. However, in this study. The husbands were
disciplinarian, while the wives were listeners to and advised their children. Some of the authoritarian
parenting practices the husbands employed are related to East Asian parenting model (Chao, 1996),
contrary to the authoritarian parenting style traditionally normalized in the U.S. (Baumrind, 1971). These
contradictory findings can be attributed to gender role expectations, rather than cultural parenting styles
of collectivists or individualists.
Limitations
The small Japanese population in the area limited the number of possible participants. It might
affect the participants’ experiences and perspectives about acculturation, such as job choices and school
choices for their children. In metropolitan U.S. cities, where Japanese businesses maintain branches, the
wives could work without speaking English, and most major cities also have Japanese schools.
Intermarried Japanese wives could benefit from a metropolitan environment, which could influence
acculturation significantly. The sample recruitment was limited to a Northwest Indiana area, which could
also affect the participants’ cultural experiences.
There may exist a potential bias amongst the sample. The participants are of similar SES, age,
profession, and age group of children. Husbands were limited to those of European descent, intending to
examine the cultural contrast of collectivists and individualists. Unintentionally, all husbands had lived in
Japan, which could significantly affect the acculturation.
Qualitative interviews were conducted by one researcher, herself intermarried Japanese, which
might affect the nature of interviewer-interviewee connection. In this qualitative case study, a native
Japanese speaking interviewer was crucial, as all of the wives expressed concerns about their English
skills. Though this offered comfort to the wives, the husbands may have felt bias in having an interviewer
with cultural and marital experiences more closely related to their wives’. A bilingual interviewer avoided
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a primary concern of qualitative inquiry, interpreting and translating the native language of interviewees
to English (Littig, & Pochhacker, 2014).
Suggestions for Future Studies
This study was conducted in a small Midwestern area, with a limited Japanese population, and
studies from a broader spectrum of population would find different experiences and issues. Longitudinal
studies would provide richer data about the effects of times differing locations.
The wives experienced similar hardships marrying into a vastly different culture, more social
support to help intermarried couples, particularly those from different countries, would help the couples
succeed in their global family union. Community based cultural centers and culturally sensitive mental
health professionals would be of great advantage to these families. As this population rapidly grows, it is
important to continue to investigate and explore their needs.
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Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Sample
Participants
Adams
Brown
Cooper
Duncan
Mr. Adams
Mrs. Adams
Mr. Brown
Mrs. Brown
Mr. Cooper
Mrs. Cooper
Mr. Duncan
Mrs. Duncan
Age
42
44
40
39
36
49
47
46
Years of Marriage
Age of Child(ren)
16
11 & 8 years old
11
12 & 8 years old
10
8 years old
10
10 years old
Table 2. Selected Second Interview Questions
1
Do you remember what you expected in marriage when you were younger and single?
Has it changed since you got married?
2
How would you describe your communication style?
3
How about your spouse’s?
4
How do you feel about your communication style before your marriage and after
marriage, any changes?
5
How about your spouse’s? Any changes?
6
Any changes in family customs before marriage and after marriage? Any traditional
events or customs added or removed, and why?
7
Do you have any conflicts or challenges in marriage?
8
How do you solve/negotiate conflicts if you have any?
9
Do you have any conflicts or challenges in child rearing (if it was not suggested in marital
challenges)? 9-a) Who disciplines the child more? b) Who listens to the child’s needs and
desires more?
10
How do you solve such child rearing issues? How do you make decisions for your
children? At what point do your spouse and you allow your children to get a sick day
from school, fever, and their behaviors? How do you come up with such decisions? How
about applications of medications and doctor visits?
11
Do you feel your spouse’s culture affected you in any way? If so how?
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